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  • iGCSE
    • CIE iGCSE
      • The Natural Environment iGCSE Geography
        • The main types and features of volcanoes
        • The main features of earthquakes
        • Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes
        • Effects of earthquakes and volcanoes on people and the environment
        • Reducing the impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes
      • Population and settlement – iGCSE Geography
        • Introduction to population
        • World Population Increase
        • Over-population and under-population
        • The main causes of a change in population size
        • Natural Population Change
        • Population Policies
        • A country with a rate of high population growth – China
        • A country which is over-populated – Bangladesh
        • A country which is under-populated – Australia
        • A country with a low rate of population growth or decline – Japan
        • What is migration and why do people migrate?
        • What are the impacts of migration?
        • International migration from Syria to Europe
        • Population structure
        • Population Pyramids
        • Japan – A country with a high dependent population
        • What is population density?
        • What factors affect population density and distribution?
        • A case study of a sparsely populated area – Himalayan Mountains
        • A case study of a densely populated area – Greater London
        • What is a settlement?
        • Patterns of settlement
    • Edexcel iGCSE Geography Revision
  • AQA Geography
    • The Challenge of Natural Hazards
    • Physical Landscapes in the UK
    • The Living World
    • The Changing Economic World
      • How are countries classified?
      • What does world development look like?
      • How reliable are economic indicators of development?
      • How is social development measured?
      • Why is the Human Development Index important?
      • Development, population change and the demographic transition model
      • What factors influence development?
      • Strategies for reducing the development gap
      • How can the growth of tourism reduce the development gap? Jamaica Case Study
      • How can the growth of tourism reduce the development gap? Tunisia Case Study
      • What is Nigeria’s location and importance?
      • What is Nigeria’s wider context?
      • How is Nigeria’s economy changing?
      • What is the role of transnational companies in Nigeria?
      • How are Nigeria’s trading and political relationships changing?
      • International Aid in Nigeria
      • What are the environmental impacts of economic development in Nigeria?
      • What are the effects of economic development in Nigeria on quality of life?
      • Economic change in the UK
      • De-industrialisation in the UK
      • The UK’s post-industrial economy
      • What are the impacts of industry on the physical environment?
      • How is the rural landscape changing?
      • Developments in infrastructure in the UK
      • The north-south divide
      • The UK in the Wider World
    • Urban issues and challenges
    • AQA Resource Management
    • Geographical Skills
  • Topics
    • Climate Change
      • What is climate change?
      • Is climate change happening?
      • What causes climate change?
      • What are the effects of climate change?
      • How can the impacts of climate change be managed?
    • Coasts
      • What are waves?
      • Constructive Waves
      • Destructive Waves
      • What is chemical and mechanical weathering?
      • What is mass movement?
      • What is coastal erosion?
      • Cliffs and wave-cut platforms
      • Landforms of coastal erosion
      • Bays and Headlands
      • Erosion of a headland
      • What is coastal transportation?
      • What is longshore drift?
      • What is coastal deposition?
      • Landforms of coastal deposition
      • Salt Marsh
      • How are sand dunes formed?
      • Coastal Management
      • Hard Engineering Coastal Management
      • Soft Engineering
      • Coastal Realignment
      • Sandscaping at Bacton
      • Happisburgh Case Study
      • Blakeney Point Case Study
      • The Holderness Coast – Case Study
      • Dorset Coast – Case Study
        • Chesil Beach
        • Durdle Door
        • Lulworth Cove
        • Old Harry Rocks
    • Earthquakes
      • What is an earthquake?
      • Why do earthquakes happen?
      • What are the effects of earthquakes?
      • How are earthquakes measured?
      • What factors influence the effects and response to tectonic activity?
      • Two Earthquakes Compared – Nepal and L’Aquila
      • Can the risks of earthquakes be reduced?
      • What is a tsunami?
      • The Kobe Earthquake 1995
      • The 1999 Turkish Earthquake
      • Earthquakes in California
      • Gujarat Earthquake 2001
      • L’Aquila Earthquake 2009
      • Haiti Earthquake 2010
      • Japan Earthquake 2011
      • Christchurch Earthquake Case Study
      • Nepal Earthquake 2015
      • Amatrice Earthquake Case Study
      • Lombok Indonesia Earthquake 2018 Case Study
      • 2018 Sulawesi Indonesia Earthquake and Tsunami Case Study
    • Ecosystems
      • What is an ecosystem?
      • What is a Biome?
      • Humans and the Biosphere
      • How do changes affect the balance of an ecosystem?
      • UK Ecosystems
      • Epping Forest Case Study
      • The Tropical Rainforest
        • What is a Tropical Rainforest?
        • Where are tropical rainforests located?
        • What is the structure of the tropical rainforest?
        • What is the climate of the rainforest?
        • The nutrient cycle in the rainforest
        • How has rainforest vegetation adapted to the climate?
        • How have animals adapted to the rainforest environment?
        • Biodiversity and Tropical Rainforests
        • Changing rates of rainforest deforestation
        • What are the causes of deforestation in the Amazon?
        • What are the effects of deforestation in the Amazon?
        • What is the value of the tropical rainforest?
        • Sustainable Management of the Tropical Rainforest
        • Sustainable Management of the Amazon Rainforest
      • Temperate Deciduous Woodland
        • What is a Temperate Deciduous Woodland?
        • Where are Temperate Deciduous Woodlands Located?
        • What is the structure of the Temperate Deciduous Woodland?
        • How did the temperate deciduous woodland get like this?
        • How has the vegetation in the temperate deciduous forest adapted to the climate?
        • What is the impact of humans on the temperate deciduous woodland?
        • Sustainable development in the Temperate Deciduous Woodland
      • Taiga
        • What is Taiga?
        • Where is Taiga located?
        • How did the Taiga get like this?
        • What is the impact of humans on the Taiga?
        • Sustainable development in the Taiga
      • Savanna
        • What is savanna?
        • Where is savanna located?
        • How did the savanna get like this?
        • What is the impact of humans on the savanna?
        • Sustainable development in the savanna
      • Desert
        • What is a hot desert?
        • Where are deserts located?
        • Why are deserts located along the tropics?
        • Interdependence in the hot desert
        • Biodiversity in hot deserts
        • How has hot desert vegetation adapted to the climate?
        • How have animals adapted to the desert?
        • Opportunities and Challenges in the Sahara Desert
        • Opportunities and Challenges in the Thar Desert
        • Opportunities and Challenges in the Western Desert
        • What is the impact of humans on the desert?
        • Reducing the risk of desertification
        • Sustainable development in the desert – The Great Green Wall
      • Cold Environments – Polar and Tundra
        • What are cold environments?
        • Where are polar and tundra environments located?
        • What are the physical characteristics of cold environments?
        • How have animals adapted to cold environments?
        • How have plants adapted to cold environments?
        • How is a cold environment interdependent?
        • Alaska Case Study
        • Svalbard Case Study
        • Where is Tundra located?
        • Protection of cold environments as wilderness areas
        • How did Tundra get like this?
        • What is the impact of humans on Tundra?
    • Environmental Problems
      • What is Acid Rain?
      • What problems are caused by acid rain?
      • What is the greenhouse effect?
      • What is global warming?
      • What causes global warming?
      • What problems are caused by global warming?
      • What are the benefits of global warming?
    • Erosion and Weathering
      • What is erosion?
      • What does scenery formed by erosion look like?
      • What is weathering?
      • What are the different types of weathering?
    • Food Resources
      • What are the differences in global calorie intake and food supply?
      • Why is demand for food growing?
      • What affects the amount of food we have?
      • How does food insecurity affect people?
      • How does food insecurity affect the environment?
      • How can we increase the amount of food produced globally?
      • What is the new green revolution?
      • Almería in Spain: a large-scale agricultural development
      • What is a sustainable food supply?
      • Sustainable Food Supplies in an LIC – Bangladesh
    • Glaciation
      • What is glaciation?
      • How do glaciers erode?
      • How do glaciers move?
      • How do glaciers transport material?
      • Why does glacial deposition happen?
      • Glacial Landforms – Upland Features
      • Which landforms result from moving or melting ice?
      • Glacial Landforms – Lowland Features
      • Glacial landforms in the Lake District
      • Economic activities in glaciated upland areas
      • Glaciation Photo gallery – Goat Fell, Isle of Arran
    • Urban Growth in India – Mumbai
      • What is the location and importance of Mumbai?
      • Why is Mumbai growing?
      • What are Mumbai’s social and economic opportunities?
      • What challenges have been caused by urban growth in Mumbai?
      • How is urban planning improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Mumbai?
    • Urban Growth in Nigeria – Lagos
      • Location of Lagos
      • The Growth of Lagos
      • What causes population growth in Lagos?
      • How has urbanisation helped Nigeria to develop?
      • How has the growth of Lagos caused inequality?
      • Economic opportunities and challenges in Lagos
      • Lagos squatter settlements
      • Lagos Water Supply and Pollution
      • Traffic Congestion in Lagos
      • Urban Planning in Lagos
    • Urban Growth in Rio de Janeiro – Brazil
      • How is urban planning improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Rio de Janeiro?
      • What is the location and importance of Rio de Janeiro?
      • How has Rio de Janeiro grown?
      • What are the social and economic opportunities associated with the growth of Rio?
      • What challenges are associated with the growth of Rio?
      • How is urban planning improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Rio de Janeiro?
    • Limestone
      • What is limestone?
      • How does weathering affect limestone?
      • Limestone (karst features) – Overview
      • Limestone features below ground
      • Limestone features above ground
      • Limestone and Recreation
      • How are limestone landscapes used?
      • Limestone Case Study – Malham, The Yorkshire Dales
      • Sustainable management of quarrying
    • Migration
      • What is migration?
      • What are the main types of migration?
      • Why do people migrate?
      • Push and Pull Factors
      • Migration into Europe
    • Plate Tectonics
      • Structure of the Earth
      • Plate Boundaries
      • What is continental drift?
      • Why do tectonic plates move?
      • Where do volcanoes and earthquakes happen?
      • Conservative Plate Margins
      • Constructive Plate Margins
      • Destructive Plate Margins
      • Volcanic Hot Spots
      • Pacific Ring of Fire
      • Fold Mountains
    • Population
      • What is population distribution?
      • What is population density?
      • What factors affect population density?
      • How has world population changed?
      • What causes population change?
      • What is life expectancy?
      • What is the Demographic Transition Model?
      • What are population pyramids?
      • Population change in LEDCs
        • Case Study: China
        • Population Case Study: Kerala, India
      • Population change in MEDCs
    • Resources
      • Types of Energy
      • Non-renewable Energy
      • Renewable Energy
    • Resource Management
      • The significance of food, water and energy
      • An overview of global inequalities in the supply and consumption of resources
      • The demand for food in the UK
      • Carbon footprints, ‘food miles’ and moves towards local sourcing of food
      • Why is there a trend towards agribusiness?
      • How has demand for water in the UK changed?
      • Carbon footprints, ‘food miles’ and moves towards local sourcing of food
      • Water quality and pollution management in the UK
      • Where are the areas of water deficit and surplus in the UK?
      • Water Transfer in the UK
      • How is demand for energy changing in the UK?
      • How is the UK’s energy mix changing?
      • What are the economic and environmental issues of energy production?
    • Rivers
      • Weathering and mass movement in river valleys
      • How do rivers erode?
      • How do rivers transport material?
      • Why do rivers deposit sediment?
      • How does geology affect the formation of river landforms?
      • The Long Profile of a River
      • Cross profiles of a river
      • Landforms in the upper course of a river
      • Landforms in the middle course of a river
      • Landforms in the lower course of a river
      • How do weather and climate affect river landscapes?
      • Human activity in River Landscapes
      • What are the human and physical factors that affect flood risk?
      • How does flooding affect humans and the environment?
      • The River Tees – landforms of erosion and deposition
      • The Water Cycle
      • What is a river basin?
      • River Discharge
      • Flood Hydrographs
      • River Flooding and Management
      • Rivers – Hard Engineering
      • Rivers – Soft Engineering
      • Case Study – Ganges/Brahmaputra River Basin
      • The Great Floods of 2000
      • Kerala flood case study
    • Rocks, Resources and Scenery
      • Geological time is on a different time to human time
      • Rock Types and the Rock Cycle
      • Rock and Weathering
      • Different rocks create contrasting landforms and landscapes
      • How are granite landscapes used?
      • How are limestone landscapes used?
      • What is the impact of quarrying?
      • Sustainable management of quarrying
    • Settlements
      • What is a settlement?
      • What is the site and situation of a settlement?
      • What are the functions of a settlement?
      • What is a settlement hierarchy?
      • What do we mean by land use?
      • What are land use zones?
        • CBD
        • Inner City
        • Suburbs
        • Rural Urban Fringe
      • What are landuse models?
      • What are landuse models in MEDCs like?
      • What are landuse models for LEDCs like?
      • What are shanty towns / favelas?
      • What are shanty town improvement schemes?
    • Tourism
      • What is tourism?
      • How has tourism grown?
      • What is the impact of tourism?
      • Tourism in an MEDC – The UK
      • What are National Parks?
      • The National Parks of England and Wales
      • Problems in National Parks
      • Castleton A tourist honey pot in The Peak District
      • Castleton – Case Study Page
      • Tourism in an LEDC – Kenya
      • Ecotourism
      • Ecotourism – Case Study
    • Urbanisation
      • What is urbanisation?
      • What causes urbanisation?
      • Million Cities
      • What is a megacity?
      • Counter-urbanisation
      • Urban Problems in LEDCs
        • Case Study – Rio de Janerio
        • Case Study – Favela
        • Self Help Schemes
      • Urban Problems in MEDCs
        • Case Study – Inner City Redevelopment – London’s Docklands
    • Volcanoes
      • What is a volcano?
      • Where are volcanoes located?
      • What is the Ring of Fire?
      • What are active, dormant and extinct volcanoes?
      • What are the main features of a volcano?
      • What are the different types of volcanoes?
      • What are lahars and pyroclastic flows?
      • What is a supervolcano?
      • Why do people live close to volcanoes?
      • Can the risks of volcanic eruptions be reduced?
      • The 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens
      • The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
      • The 2000 eruption of Popocatepetl
      • The 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi
      • Eyjafjallajokull Case Study
      • Anak Krakatau & Sunda Strait Tsunami Indonesia Case Study 2018
    • Weather and Climate
      • What are climate zones?
      • What factors affect climate?
      • What are climate graphs?
      • What is an air mass?
      • What influences an air mass?
      • Why is the weather of the UK so changeable?
      • What are the air masses that affect the UK?
      • What is precipitation?
      • What is relief rainfall?
      • What is frontal rainfall?
      • What is convectional rainfall?
      • What is global atmospheric circulation?
      • What is atmospheric pressure?
      • What is high pressure?
      • What is low pressure?
      • How do ocean currents transfer and redistribute heat energy around the Earth?
      • Weather hazards in the UK
      • Extreme weather in the UK – Beast from the East
      • Extreme Weather in the UK Summer Heatwave 2018
      • Extreme Weather in the UK – Storm Ciara
      • What is the difference between a tornado and a hurricane?
      • What are tropical storms?
      • How do tropical storms form?
      • Planning for tropical storms
      • Cyclone Eline
      • Cyclone Idai Case Study
      • Hurricane Andrew
      • Hurricane Florence Case Study
      • Hurricane Katrina Case Study
      • Hurricane Michael Case Study
      • Typhoon Haiyan Case Study
      • Typhoon Jebi Case Study
      • Typhoon Mangkhut Case Study
      • Arid Environments and Drought
      • What are the causes of drought?
  • Skills
    • Cartographic Skills – Atlas Maps
    • Cartographic Skills – OS Maps
    • Compass Directions
    • Data Presentation in Geography
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    • GIS
    • Field sketches in Geography
    • Fieldwork
      • River Fieldwork Techniques
      • Coastal Fieldwork
        • Coastal Fieldwork Apps
        • Coastal Fieldwork Equipment
        • Coastal Fieldwork Techniques
    • Grid References
    • Statistical Techniques in Geography
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    • CPD
      • Coastal Environments CPD – Erosional Landforms, Coastal Management and Fieldwork on the Holderness Coast
      • Coastal Environments CPD – Erosional Erosion, Coastal Management, Deposition and Fieldwork on the Holderness Coast
      • River Fieldwork CPD on the River Derwent
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Why does the valley cross-section change downstream?

How does the valley cross-section change downstream?

Why does the channel cross-section of a river change downstream?

How does a channel cross-section change downstream?

What is a valley cross profile?

What is a channel cross profile?

What is the cross profile of a river?

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