The gradient of the long profile becomes more concave as vertical erosion reduces.

Find out more about the long profile of a river.

Rapids form when there is vertical bedding which is when alternate bands of hard and soft rock cross the channel. Differential erosion will occur as the soft rock is more easily eroded than hard rock. This makes the riverbed uneven and river’s flow becomes turbulent leading to white water sections typical of rapids.

Find out more about the landforms of erosion in the upper course of a river.

Examples include:

• benefits wildlife by creating habitats
• it’s a natural method of intercepting precipitation and slowing water transfer in a river basin
• absorbs and stores carbon reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• relatively inexpensive.

Find out more about soft engineering.

Characteristics of a flood plain include:

• A large area of flat land either side of a river
• layers of alluvium cover the flood plain
• a river bluff along the edge of a flood plain
• meander scars
• levees
• rich, fertile soil
• reeds and marsh plants

Find out more about landforms in the lower course of the river.

Vertical erosion involves the wearing away and deepening of the river bed. This is mostly by hydraulic action. It is most common in the upper course of the river.

Find out more about river erosion.